Dave Murad
Grammar
Clauses, Phrases, and Fragments
A Clause is a part of a sentence with both a subject and verb. We distinguish clauses from sentences because the sentence is the complete thought or utterance (bookended by Capitalization and ending punctuation), which can have one or more clauses.
One-clause sentence: Aralai cried into my shoulder.
Two clause-sentence: Aralai cried into my shoulder, which became wet with tears.
Three clause-sentence: I returned from work, and Aralai cried into my shoulder, which became wet with tears.
Sentences should include at least one Independent Clause, a base subject-predicate utterance that can exist by itself. Sentences might also include additional independent clauses (connected by a conjunction or semi-colon, say):
I returned from work, and Aralai cried into my shoulder.
The weather did not cooperate with our golf plans; we played games inside instead.
Or, sentences might include an independent clause and one or more Subordinate Clauses, sometimes called dependent clauses because they depend on the independent clause. Subordinate Clauses cannot exist on their own because they open with a Subordinating Word (italicized below), a word that coherently links two clauses together so that one clause depends on or leads to the other; the subordinating word makes the subordinating clause dependent upon the independent clause.
Independent Clause Subordinate Clause
Aralai cried into my shoulder, which became wet with tears.
“Which became wet with tears” is not an independent clause and would not be a complete sentence on its own because “which” is a subordinating word linking its clause with another clause (within the same sentence).
Subordinate Independent
After Aralai fell down, she cried.
Independent Subordinate
Aralai cried when she fell down.
In these examples, “she fell down” could exist as an independent clause (and sentence all its own), but as soon as a subordinating word (such as “after” or “when”) is connected to that clause, there must be a linked independent clause.
Both the choice of subordinating words and where the clauses appear in a sentence matter.
Aralai cried because she fell down. ≠ Aralai fell down because she cried.
Aralai cried after she fell down. ≠ Aralai cried so she fell down.
Phrases
A Phrase is a word group that coherently belongs together but does not include both subject and verb. There are several main types of phrases, including: prepositional, participial, appositive, gerund, and infinitive.
Prepositional Phrases
Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive Phrases (blue highlighted) open with “to” followed by the base form of a verb to express a noun, adjective, or adverb.
Infinitive phrases as nouns serve as subjects, objects, or subject complements:
Subject:
Q: Why should I care? A: To do otherwise is insensitive.
To err is human.
Subject Complement:
Q: Am I doing okay in the class? A: That remains to be seen.
My goal is to play my best.
Object:
I tried to play my best.
We love to eat strawberries after lunch.
Infinitive phrases as adjectives modify a noun or pronoun.
The best person to ask is your professor.
Luckily, they had the right tool to fix my car.
Infinitive phrases as adverbs modify the verb to communicate why the action occurs.
I aim for high grades to please my parents.
To inspire others, the team played through their setbacks.
Gerund Phrases
Gerund phrases (blue highlighted) open with the present participle verb form (bolded) in a word group to collectively function as a noun. In many respects, gerund phrases are similar to infinitive phrases that act as nouns.
Infinitive phrase: To err is human.
Gerund phrase: Erring is human.
Infinitive: To smoke is bad for your health.
Gerund: Smoking is bad for your health.
Infinitive: We love to eat strawberries after lunch.
Gerund: We love eating strawberries after lunch.
Clause Exercises
Participial Phrases
Appositive Phrases
Appositive phrases (blue highlighted) follow and give more information about a noun (the complete noun bolded). The word group collectively functions as a noun.
Having lost my patience looking for the best ice cream stand at the fair, I finally stopped at one advertising my favorite flavor, cookie dough.
English Composition 2, a final class in Lakeland’s composition sequence, is recommended for transfer students, sophomores typically.
Fragments
In the following passages, identify all clauses (passages may have one or more clauses, or none) and the main subject and verb of each clause. If there is no clause, simply write “No clause” (there is no need to identify any subjects or verbs)
My spouse and I were looking for a good co-op video game.
1
Clause 1: My spouse and I were looking for a good coop video game
Main Subject: spouse and I
Main Verb: looking for
After days of research, we finally chose a popular survivalist base-building game.
2
Clause 1: we finally chose a popular survivalist base-building game
Main Subject: we
Main Verb: chose
Prepositional phrases (blue highlighted) open with a preposition (underlined) and typically lead to a noun or pronoun. The Preposition communicates the relationship between that noun and the rest of the sentence. Take for instance:
I scheduled the appointment on Monday.
Notice how the meaning of the sentence changes as we input different prepositions:
I scheduled the appointment for Monday.
I scheduled the appointment with Monday.
Saying “on Monday” communicates which day the appointment was made; saying “for Monday” communicates when the appointment is scheduled to occur (not when it was made). Saying “with Monday” communicates nothing about time, only an appointment was scheduled with a person, organization, or business named Monday! Other examples:
All homework must be finished on Monday.
All homework must be finished for Monday.
Saying “on Monday” leaves open the idea that homework could be completed during the day Monday (submitted by the end of the day, say). Saying “for Monday” emphasizes that work must be finished before Monday begins (or before Monday’s class begins, for example).
Sentences can have multiple prepositional phrases…
For over an hour, without end, the rains swept across the city.
… which can often be juxtaposed depending on purpose, style, and emphasis:
The rains swept across the city for over an hour without end.
However, not all juxtapositions function equally:
At noon, the train left the station, slowly climbing up the mountain.
Slowly climbing up the mountain, the train left the station at noon.
In the second case, the train is climbing up the mountain before leaving the station at noon (the juxtaposition confuses the time these events took place). Thus, another way to rewrite this sentence with time sequence in mind:
Having left the station at noon, the train slowly climbed up the mountain.
Just because you identify a word typically used as a preposition does not mean it is functioning as such, or as the start of a prepositional phrase.
I will read up on that more.
There are no prepositions in this sentence; instead, up and on are part of the phrasal verb to read up on.
The game was relaxing, and we had fun building forts and gadgets in the woods.
3
Clause 1: The game was relaxing
Main Subject: game
Main Verb: was
Clause 2: we had fun building forts and gadgets in the woods
Main Subject: we
Main Verb: had
Participial phrases (blue highlighted) open with the past or present participle verb form (bolded) in a word group to collectively function as an adjective.
Past participial phrases
The students asked the professor, not known for leniency, to delay the exam. Influenced by their appeals, though, the professor postponed the exam. One student surprised with this result emailed the professor to thank her.
The preceding also includes infinitive phrases (“to delay the exam” and “to thank her”) serving as objects.
Present participial phrases
Having lost my patience looking for the best ice cream stand at the fair, I finally stopped at one advertising my favorite flavor, cookie dough.
The preceding technically contains three participial phrases: “having lost my patience”; “looking for the best ice cream stand at the fair”; and “advertising my favorite flavor.” But because the phrase “losing one’s patience” often requires an indirect object (losing patience with what or whom?), we can include it within the “having lost…” phrase.
Employing participial phrases can often make sentences more efficient: by merging sentences with similar subjects or objects or removing linking verbs describing similar subjects or objects. Notice how the preceding version is more efficient than that offered below:
The professor was not known for leniency, but the students asked her to delay the exam. The professor was influenced by the students’ appeals and postponed the exam. One student was surprised with this result and emailed the professor to thank her.
This iteration says almost exactly what the other says but it takes 42 words instead of the more efficient participial version of 35. In the more efficient version, weaker linking verbs (and their adjective subject complements) are turned into participial phrases, leaving subjects alongside more forceful action verbs.
More than just efficiency, participial phrases connect sentences coherently with less need for conjunctions or subordinating words (which can clutter prose):
I had lost my patience looking for the best ice cream stand at the fair, so I stopped at one that was advertising my favorite flavor, which is cookie dough.
This iteration is 30 words; the participial version is 25.
All of a sudden spending hours and hours without knowing the time.
4
No clause
A year after we finished the game, the developers released a major update, so we started playing again.
5
Clause 1: A year after we finished the game
Main Subject: we
Main Verb: finished
Clause 2: the developers released a major update
Main Subject: developers
Main Verb: released
Clause 3: so we started playing again
Main Subject: we Main Verb: started
A Fragment is an incomplete sentence, usually a clause missing the subject or verb, but phrases left on their own would also be fragments.
Sentences (and clauses): I ate lunch. It was good. I went home.
Fragments (phrases): For lunch. Being good. To go home.
Fragments (missing the subjects): Ate lunch. Was good. Went home.
Fragments (missing the verbs): I lunch. It good. I home.
Calling attention to such terms (clauses, fragments, phrases, etc) helps identify integral parts of a sentence, their use and purpose. Take the following:
Both of my friends, who are always seeking adventure, love traveling to new places, with or without reservations.
In a way, the core sentence here is: “Both love traveling,” where both is the simple subject, love is the verb, and traveling is the object.
So what about everything else? Well, each additional part (some essential, others not) adds important details. For instance, both is a vague subject that usually needs either a prior reference or, if there is no antecedent, a further detail (both what?), so the prepositional phrase of my friends becomes an essential part of the subject. Likewise, my friends don’t just love traveling everywhere or anywhere—they love traveling to new places, an essential infinitive phrase attached to traveling to become the complete object phrase. Meanwhile, with or without reservations is an unessential appositive phrase that further details how they love to travel to new places. And finally, who are always seeking adventure is a clause (unessential) that further details or describes the two friends.
A less efficient version of that sentence might go something like this:
Both of my friends are always seeking adventure. They love traveling to new places and will go with or without reservations.
But the earlier version says the same thing more efficiently. In short, identifying clauses and phrases helps us identify what is happening and how a sentence may be efficiently constructed.
In the following passages, identify whether the underlined and bracketed passages are clauses or phrases.
Thomas had always hated spam phone calls, and [for good reason].
1
Underline: Clause
Brackets: Phrase
To avoid spam calls from companies and con artists alike, [Thomas applied for a new phone number].
2
Underline: Phrase
Brackets: Clause
When Thomas received his new number, [he carried the false impression that he would never receive spam calls again].
3
Underline: Clause
Brackets: Clause
Forgetting that someone else once owned that number, [Thomas kept receiving the spam calls].
4
Underline: Phrase
Brackets: Clause
The only way to fight back, Thomas finally presumed, was [to petition government to ban the practice].
5
Underline: Clause
Brackets: Phrase
Clause and Phrase
Exercises
Clause, Phrase, and Fragment Exercises
My spouse was calling all around town for a specialty birthday cake for her father.
1
Sentence: My spouse [subject] was calling [verb] all around town…
All the cake shops, no orders ready within a day.
2
Fragment: All the cake shops [said that] no orders [would be] ready within a day.
Calling 48 hours ahead was recommended.
3
Sentence: Calling [subject] 48 hours ahead was [verb] recommended.
Which turned out just fine as cake is cake.
5
Fragment: [The grocery store cake] turned out just fine, as cake is cake.
Seeing that there were no options, went with a ready-made chocolate one from the grocery store.
4
Fragment: Seeing that there were no options, [she] went with a ready-made chocolate one from the grocery store.
Revise the following to be complete sentences (if a fragment, phrase, or subordinate clause, rewrite to create a sentence). Your sentence revision may involve changing tenses or forms; adding words not provided; and/or rearranging words. If the following are sentences or independent clauses to begin with, simply write “Sentence.”