Dave Murad
Grammar
Punctuation
Perhaps the biggest distinction between written and oral communication is the inclusion of punctuation. Clearly, verbal communication utilizes no punctuation—we rely rather on syntax and sentence construction, as well as pacing, pausing, body language, and tone to further communicate ideas. While a degree of pacing, pausing, or tone is possible in writing without punctuation, many of those linguistic nuances are conveyed using punctuation. Punctuation also helps visibly organize and distinguish parts of a written passage, which can too easily blend together without punctuation.
For instance, imagine if the previous paragraph had no punctuation or capitalization:
perhaps the biggest distinction between written and oral communication is the inclusion of punctuation verbal communication utilizes no punctuation we rely rather on syntax and sentence construction as well as pacing pausing body language and tone to further communicate ideas while a degree of pacing pausing or tone is possible in writing without punctuation much of that part of language is conveyed using punctuation punctuation also helps visibly organize and distinguish parts of a written sentence which can too easily blend together without punctuation
Punctuation helps writers organize or accentuate their communication. Punctuation then helps readers comprehend what is being communicated.
Commas
Commas are often frustrating for writers, young and old. One overarching recommendation for comma use is this: have a rationale for why a comma should be used, then be consistent. Each section below offers rationale for comma use.
Commas: Two or More
Independent Clauses
We use commas between independent clauses connected with a conjunction.
The teacher assigned homework for the weekend, and everyone complained.
The homework aimed to further develop our projects, but no one appreciated that point.
We had to turn in the homework by Monday morning, or the late penalty would kick in.
The comma and the conjunction help delineate the two subject-verb ideas, and the only exception is when both independent clauses have the same subject. In such cases, you may find that people omit the comma, or keep it.
I spent the weekend working on the assignment and I was pleased with the result.
I spent the weekend working on the assignment, and I was pleased with the result.
My friend played video games all weekend so he had nothing to submit Monday morning.
My friend played video games all weekend, so he had nothing to submit Monday morning.
The first set typically arrives with no comma; the second set would typically arrive with a comma.
In those cases, too, sometimes the second subject is removed. If so, a comma is not typically needed between clauses.
I spent the weekend working on the assignment and was pleased with the result.
My friend played video games all weekend so had nothing to submit Monday morning.
Commas: Introductory Words,
Phrases, or Clauses
We use commas after an introductory word, phrase, or clause.
Surprisingly, I love working out.
On Mondays and Tuesdays, I usually go to the gym after work.
If the opportunity presents itself, I might also go to the gym on Wednesdays.
Seeing how much I enjoyed the gym and how much of a difference going has made to my health, my friend decided to also get a membership.
However, she has yet to join me.
The comma helps distinguish the introduction from the main / independent clause.
Commas: Items in a Series
We use commas to distinguish items in a series. Two items are well enough separated with just the conjunction.
My mother asked me to pick up chicken and salad from the store.
But three or more items should arrive with commas separating each.
My mother asked me to pick up chicken, salad, and dressing from the store.
Without commas—“My mother asked me to pick up chicken salad and dressing from the store”—you might bring home chicken salad instead of chicken and salad.
Items in a series can include one-word phrases to lengthy clauses.
My mother asked me to clean, pick up groceries, walk both dogs, and do the laundry.
My mother’s instructions included not doing anything until she called, keeping the phone lines open until that time, and only texting her if there happened to be an emergency.
When items in a series include commas on their own, we often use semi-colons to distinguish the main series of items.
My mother asked me to pick up chicken, salad, and dressing from the store; walk both dogs; and, if I still had time, clean the kitchen.
Commas:
Nonessential Parts of a Sentence
A sentence usually includes essential elements, such as a subject and predicate, that are necessary for the sentence’s core meaning and construction. In addition, many sentences include nonessential elements, such as an introductory phrase or subordinate clause, that add important transitions, details, or information but all of which could be removed without interrupting the sentence’s core subject-predicate construction and meaning. Nonessential elements often, though not always, arrive with commas.
The following sentence contains only essential elements—the subject my mother and the predicate, which includes the verb asked alongside the direct and indirect objections me to pick up milk.
My mother asked me to pick up milk.
Simply adding anything to this statement does not mean adding a nonessential element. For instance, in the following, “that had the latest sell-by date” is also essential because the mother is now asking for not just any milk but that specific type of milk. In effect, the essential elements of the sentence have changed.
My mother asked me to pick up milk that had the latest sell-by date.
However, nonessential items could be added to the sentence. Notice how commas split off each nonessential part.
This morning, my mother asked me to pick up milk that had the latest sell-by date.
My mother, who is always picky about her grocery selections, asked me to pick up milk that had the latest sell-by date.
My mother asked me to pick up milk, either whole or 2%, that had the latest sell-by date.
To slightly tweak the previous essential sentence into a nonessential one, we might write:
My mother asked me to pick up milk, ideally one with the latest sell-by date.
While the essential sentence about the sell-by-date is similar to this last nonessential one, in the former the mother asks for a specific type of milk; in the latter, the mother asks for any milk, even if a particular option is preferred.
In some sentences with essential or nonessential parts, the comma is vital to communicating a specific idea.
George walked his dog, Charlie, in the afternoon. [George only has one dog, whose name, arriving as additional info, happens to be Charlie]
George walked his dog Charlie in the afternoon. [without commas, we learn that George has at least two dogs and George walked Charlie, not any other dog(s)]
Commas: Asides, Interjections, Addresses, Yes / No, and
Transitional Words or Phrases
Like nonessential sentence elements, words or phrases that serve as asides, interjections, or transitions are also often distinguished with commas. We also use commas when addressing someone or something and with yes / no.
You mean the painting from the civil war, right?
No, I did not know the painting had returned to that museum.
The painting, not one of my favorites, was completed in 1937.
The painting is, however, celebrated for its political commentary.
The decision to keep the painting out of the country until the dictator died was also quite the statement, I must say.
Have you seen the painting, Maria?
If the aside, interjection, or transition occurs between two independent clauses, semi-colons can also be used between the independent clauses.
I prefer earlier works by that painter; however, I understand why that painting is so popular.
Commas: Addresses, Places, Dates
Quotation Marks
Comma Splices
Whether you are telling a story that incorporates dialogue or writing a professional report that incorporates expert opinions, you are bound to use direct quotations (quoting another individual’s wording exactly, word-for-word) in your writing. In a separate class resource—“Citations and Source Use”—I fully explain the process of appropriate citations, so likewise refer to that document if using outside sources. This section, though, will cover the punctuation needs for quoting appropriately.
Comma Exercises
Revise the following sentences for appropriate commas. Revision may involve adding one or more commas or deleting one or more, as well as revising words, other punctuation, or the passage altogether. If the sentence is correct as is, simply write, “Correct.”
Direct Quotations
(word-for-word what they said)
Use quotation marks around quotations. Use a comma before the quote if a signal phrase—such as “according to” or “he said”—leads into the quote. Note the placement of other commas and periods, as well.
The teacher said, “The Second Spanish Republic created massive celebrations in many of Spain’s largest cities.”
Crowds stood in the central plaza, shouting “Viva La Republica!” or “Long live the Republic!” in full view of government officials, officers, and soldiers.
Javier Tusell and Genoveva Queipo de Llano concur that “Spain had never known elections in which all citizens, across all classes, were so interested” (217).[1]
When paraphrasing (summarizing or relaying the gist of what someone said but not quoting directly), do not use quotation marks. Note that the Fleming and Fleming quotation below has quotation marks, but the New York Times article—“Krim Is Stronger as Powers Delay”—is paraphrased. Note also that titles of shorter workers—like articles or webpages—arrive in quotation marks while titles of larger works—like newspapers or websites—arrive in italics.
The 1925 Franco-Spanish Conference adopted accords “to impede both maritime and terrestrial contraband” (Fleming and Fleming 90), and speaking to the New York Times during the conference, Miguel Primo de Rivera highlighted the need to prevent smuggling specifically by land (“Krim Is Stronger as Powers Delay”).[2]
When quoting a passage longer than three lines, use a block quotation. Note that no quotation marks are used, and a parenthetical citation follows the block quotation that starts with "the crowds...":
The country’s initial jubilation was, however, complicated (and later undermined) by competing interests. As Nigel Townson observes,
the crowds that thronged the squares and streets of Spain on 14 April in celebration of the Republic’s proclamation harboured a multitude of fissiparous, often contradictory, interests. The provisional government itself, divided as it was between recent Catholic converts to the republican cause, socialists, conservative republicans, and left-wing republicans as well as Catalan and Galician nationalists, possessed neither a common programme nor a shared vision of the Republican state. (222)[3]
Republican enthusiasm remained high in the initial months, but the optimism and celebrations soon carried into divisions and turmoil.
[1] Tusell, Javier, and Genoveva Queipo de Llano. “The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, 1923-1931.” Spanish History since 1808, edited by José Alvarez Junco and Adrian Shubert, Arnold Publishers and Oxford UP, 2000, pp. 207-220.
[2] Fleming, Shannon E., and Ann K. Fleming. “Primo de Rivera and Spain’s Moroccan Problem, 1923-1927.” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 12, no. 1, 1977, pp. 85-99.
“Krim Is Stronger as Powers Delay.” The New York Times, 26 Jun. 1925: 4.
[3] Townson, Nigel. “The Second Republic, 1931-1936: Sectarianism, Schisms, and Strife.” Spanish History since 1808, edited by José Alvarez Junco and Adrian Shubert, Arnold Publishers and Oxford UP, 2000, pp. 221-235.
Quotation Marks: Other Situations, such as Sayings, Naming Words, Titles, and Single Quotation Marks
Parentheses and Dashes
Semi-colons
Parentheses are often used as asides or to provide additional information.
I had forgotten (as I often do) my keys on the counter.
The first time they won a championship (in 2010), their current veteran players were rookies.
Several major cities (Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, for instance) held back the Nationalist forces until 1939.
Parentheses should not be overused, and it is a good idea to ask yourself if the information is important enough to be included in the general prose. In many cases, information is put into parentheses because otherwise it would appear awkwardly or as an interruption.
Dashes can take the place of parentheses or commas to separate out text. They are often used in place of other punctuation because the horizontal lines (with their increased space) help distinguish the aside. In other words, dashes—with their elongated form that still closely connects sentence parts—may be employed to better signal the beginning and ending of an aside or additional information. In some cases, other such punctuation is already in use, so a dash helps to both break the monotony and provide relief in following other punctuation.
Several major cities—Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, for instance—held back the Nationalist forces until 1939.
Excited to try out new golf clubs Ana took the day off, and hit the golf course early.
1
Excited to try out new golf clubs, Ana took the day off, and hit the golf course early.
Before, she left home she checked her bag for all the essential items: clubs balls and tees.
2
Before she left home, she checked her bag for all the essential items: clubs, balls, and tees.
Colons
The nearest public course Bayview Links, was 30 minutes away and located one town over in Kirtland Ohio.
3
The nearest public course, Bayview Links, was 30 minutes away and located one town over, in Kirtland, Ohio.
There were several courses only a few minutes away but they were all private and didn’t allow nonmembers.
4
There were several courses only a few minutes away, but they were all private and didn’t allow nonmembers.
Ana finished her morning 18 holes quickly enough that she decided to play another 18 in the afternoon, the course was having an event, though, so she just went home.
5
Ana finished her morning 18 holes quickly enough that she decided to play another 18 in the afternoon. The course was having an event, though, so she just went home.
[or]
Ana finished her morning 18 holes quickly enough that she decided to play another 18 in the afternoon, but the course was having an event, though, so she just went home.
Commas and Other Punctuation
Exercises
Revise the following sentences for appropriate punctuation (commas, quotation marks, parentheses, dashes, semi-colons, colons, as well as end punctuation). Revision may involve adding, deleting, or replacing punctuation, as well as revising words or the passage altogether. If the sentence is correct as is, simply write, “Correct.”
Aralai’s family had a busy November planned, first they were going to prepare for five days of Diwali a tradition in the mother’s family and then they would host Thanksgiving a tradition in the father’s family?
1
Aralai’s family had a busy November planned: first, they were going to prepare for five days of Diwali (a tradition in the mother’s family) and then they would host Thanksgiving (a tradition in the father’s family).
For Diwali; Aralai’s grandfather was going to prepare biryani and samosas “recipes he had fine-tuned over decades of cooking.
2
For Diwali, Aralai’s grandfather was going to prepare biryani and samosas, recipes he had fine-tuned over decades of cooking.
Aralai told her grandfather: in the clearest language possible, “I do not want any peas in the biryani”.
3
Aralai told her grandfather, in the clearest language possible, “I do not want any peas in the biryani.”
“Why? Do you not like my recipe?” her grandfather asked, playfully insulted by the request (he never used peas anyway).
4
“Why? Do you not like my recipe?” her grandfather asked, playfully insulted by the request (he never used peas anyway). Correct
Apparently Aralai did not realize that she actually loved peas she ate them all the time in her grandfather’s samosas which besides the spices always contained three basic ingredients potatoes carrots and peas.
5
Apparently, Aralai did not realize that she actually loved peas; she ate them all the time in her grandfather’s samosas, which—besides the spices—always contained three basic ingredients: potatoes, carrots, and peas.
There are fairly standardized guidelines for using commas with addresses, place, and dates. In short, commas separate street from city and city from state or country.
In middle school, I lived at 13 Center St., Derry, New Hampshire.
My first flight to Madrid, Spain was from Logan airport in Boston, MA.
Commas separate day from year when dates are written “month day, year.”
I flew out of the country for the first time on September 21, 2004.
However, no commas are necessary for dates without the day or when written “day month year.”
I flew out of the country for the first time on 21 Sep. 2004.
I flew out of the country for the first time in September 2004.
Commas are often incorrectly input between independent clauses. In such cases, ways to revise include inputting a conjunction, period, or semi-colon, or by subordinating one clause to the other.
Comma Splice: I arrived in Madrid, it was hot and dusty.
Conjunction: I arrived in Madrid, and it was hot and dusty.
Period: I arrived in Madrid. It was hot and dusty.
Semi-colon: I arrived in Madrid; it was hot and dusty.
Subordinating Clause: When I arrived in Madrid, it was hot and dusty.
Common sayings can appear with or without quotations. If you point to a word, letter, or idea in your sentence, quotation marks or italics can help set the text apart.
I bought the cheapest vacuum I could find, and it broke after a month. I guess “you get what you pay for.”
My friends and I are frustrated how the term “fake news” has been employed by some on the right to mean anything they disagree with, true or not.
My uncle is always angry that “whom” is no longer used in regular speech.
Titles
Below is an exemplary list of when titles of works should be in quotation marks or italicized.
“Newspaper Article Title” Newspaper
“Website Page or Article Title” Website
“Chapter in a Book” Book
“Poem” Book of Poetry
“Episode” Series
“Song” Album
Single Quotation Marks
If you use quotation marks around a passage that already includes a word or passage in quotation marks, use single quotation marks for the latter.
Following months of interviews and investigations, the research team concluded that “the city’s public transportation system was often viewed as ‘the best in the world,’ at least according to many of the city’s residents.”
Quoting an expert in the field, the migraine specialist recommends that “medicine is most effective before migraines set in, ‘but if that window is missed, the medicine should still provide some relief.’”
Semi-colons are often used instead of periods to better connect two thoughts or independent clauses. Periods—partially given the capitalized first letters that follow them—impress firmer stops and starts, more solidified separations; a semi-colon can signal a closer relationship.
The clams were delicious; I ate every one of them.
Whenever I get vacation time, I take a trip to a new place; this year was no different.
It seems as if smartphones break every three years; I wonder if companies program them that way on purpose!
Periods would be okay in each situation, but semi-colons keep the two separate thoughts more closely together.
Colons often signal important or exemplary information following the colon: to stress a point or provide an example of what has just been said. Lists are a common use, as are someone’s ideas or words.
The last time I saw my aunt, she shared a few words of wisdom regarding career struggles: for those, like herself, who started out with little-to-no money, persistence and perseverance were her trust fund.
Elated, I walked out of the hiring manager’s office with her final words echoing across my mind: “We’ll see you start on Monday.”
The job ad said the company was looking for three primary skills: good communication, diligence, and a willingness to learn.